French Revolution
Solution to NCERT Text Book Questions
Question:- 1. Describe the circumstances leading to the outbreak of revolutionary protest in France.
Answer:- Following are some of the causes which had a cumulative effect to result in revolution in France:
(a) The war with Britain for an
independent America: This war led to mounting debt on the French
monarchy. This necessitated imposition of new taxes on the public.
(b) Privilege based on birth: People
got privileges and position based on their lineage and not on their
merit. This led to resentment among common people.
(c) Concentration of power among the
privileged: People belonging to the first and second estate had all the
power and money. Masses were at the mercy of this privileged class.
(d) Subsistence Crisis:- Rising
population and less grain production resulted in demand supply gap of
bread, which was the staple diet. Wages did not keep pace with rising
prices. It was becoming difficult for people.
(e) Growing Middle Class: Because of
increased overseas trade a new class emerged. This class was wealthy not
because of birth but because of its ability to utilize opportunities.
People of the middle class started raising their voice for an end to
privileges based on lineage.
All of this led to a general sense of
resentment among people. Certain thinkers of the period spread awareness
through various media. Some from the privileged classes also advocated a
switch to democracy. So, finally there was revolution in France.
Question:- 2. Which groups of French society
benefited from the revolution? Which groups were forced to relinquish
power? Which sections of society would have been disappointed with the
outcome of the revolution?
Answer: Peasants and artisans of
French society benefited from the revolution. Clergy, nobles and church
had to relinquish power. It is obvious that those who had to forego
power and privileges would have been disappointed. People from the first
and the second estate must have been a disappointed lot.
Question: 3. Describe the legacy of the French
Revolution for the peoples of the world during the nineteenth and
twentieth centuries.
Answer: The ideas of liberty and
democratic rights were the most important legacy of the French
Revolution. These spread from France to the rest of Europe during the
nineteenth century, where feudal systems were abolished. Further these
ideas spread to different colonies of the European nations. Colonised
people interpreted and moulded these ideas according to respective
needs. This was probably like seed for an end of colonization in many
countries. By the mid of 20th century major part of the world adopted
democracy as the preferred mode of rule and the French Revolution can be
termed as the initiation point for this development.
Question: 4. Draw up a list of democratic rights we enjoy today whose origins could be traced to the French Revolution.
Answer: The following fundamental rights, given in the Indian constitution can be traced to the French Revolution:
- The right to equality
- The right to freedom of speech and expression
- The right to freedom from exploitation
- The right to constitutional remedies
Question:- 5. Would you agree with the view that the message of universal rights was beset with contradictions? Explain.
Answer: The major contradiction in the
message of universal rights as per the French Constitution of 1791 was
the total ignorance of women. All rights were given to men. Apart from
that the presence of huge number of people as passive citizens, without
voting rights, was like not putting into practice what you preach. In
other words it can be said that although the declaration of universal
rights was a good starting point but it left much to be desired.
Question: 6. How would you explain the rise of Napoleon?
Answer: After France became a republic
in 1792, the then ruler, Robespeirre, gave more privileges to the
wealthier section of society. Further, he was a sort of autocrat
himself. This led to reign of terror for the following many years. After
Robespeirre’s rule came to an end a directory was formed to avoid
concentration of power in one individual. Members of the directory often
fought among themselves leading to total chaos and political
instability. This created a political vaccum in France. This was a
conducive situation and Napoleon Bonaparte took the reign of power as a
military dictator.
French Society During the Eighteenth Century
During the eighteenth century the French Society was divided into three groups. These groups were called estates. The three types of groups were - First estate, Second estate and Third estate.First estate - Clergy belonged to 1st estate of then French Society. Clergy were the group of persons who were invested with special functions in the church,e.g. fathers, and other members of church.
Second estate - Nobility belonged
to 2nd estate of then French Society. Nobility was hereditary and hence
a person could get nobility by birth. However, new members were also
awarded nobility by monarchy after paying heavy taxes or outstanding
service to the monarchy, i.e. nobility could be purchased also. Third estate: - The 3rd estate of then French society was further divided into three categories. Big businessmen, merchants, court officials, lawyers, etc. belonged to the first category of 3rd estate. Peasants and artisans belonged to the second category. And small peasants, landless labours and servants belonged to third category, and were considered as the lowest class in the society. Members of the third state had to pay all types of taxes including tithes and taille.
Clergy and Nobility were privileged class. They had certain special privileges; in addition to feudal privilege. They were exempted from paying any types of taxes. They paid feudal taxes extracted after the members of the third estate.
Tithes: – A type of tax collected by churches which was collected from peasants in the eighteenth century French Society.
Taille: – A type of direct and indirect tax which was paid to the state by members of third estate in French Society in the eighteenth century. Taille was levied on items used for daily consumption, such as tobacco, salt, etc.
Livre: – Unit of currency of France. This was discontinued in 1794.
Louis XVI, who belonged to Bourbon family of kings, became the ruler of France in 1774. By that time; long years of war, maintenance of the court of the immense palace of Versailles made the treasury empty. In addition to this; helping during the war to the thirteen American colonies to gain their independence from Britain by Louis XVI raised the debt of treasury to more than 2 billion livers. Lenders to the state also started charging 10 percent of interest on credit to the state; this further worsened the situation of the society. Thus, in order to maintain those expenses, state was forced to increase taxes which increased the anger among the members of the third estate.
On the whole, members belonging to third estate were oppressed class and had to bear all the burden of all types of taxes.
The Struggle to Survive
Increase of population from 23 million in 1715 to 28 million in 1789, increased the demand of food grains. Poor production of food grains, frequent draught or hail, diseases, epidemics, further worsened the situation. This resulted in increase in the price of bread which was staple diet of majority. Wages of worker did not keep the pace with price rise. This increased the gap between poor and rich. These things led to subsistence crisis for the majority as poor were not able to meet the required price to purchase even bread.A Growing Middle Class Envisages and End to Privileges to Certain Class
In the eighteenth century, many persons who belonged to third estate and earned their wealth through overseas trade and manufacturing goods, were termed as middle class. It was a new social group, which also comprised of court officials, lawyers and administrative officials.Peasants, labours, had been participating in revolts against increase in taxes and food scarcity for long time, but because of lack of means and concrete programmes they did not bring any change to the society. Thus bringing the change about the social and economic order in the society was left to the middle class. People of the middle class were also oppressed at that time, as they had to pay taxes and meet the demands of clergy and nobility.
People of Middle class were educated and believed that no privilege should be given by birth, rather position of a person in society should be merit based. Philosophers, such as John Locke and Jean Jacques Rousseau were envisaging a society based on freedom, equal laws and opportunity for all. The freedom of thirteen colonies in USA from Britain based on such ideas; strengthened the thoughts of then philosophers who mainly belonged to middle class. The ideas of guarantee of individual rights became one of the important examples among the political thinkers and then philosophers of France.
Refuting the doctrine of divine and absolute right of the monarch was the main idea of Locke which was made public in his Two Treaties of Government. Rousseau proposed the idea to form a government based on a social contract between people and their representatives. Montesquieu gave the idea of division of power within the government among the legislative, the executive and the judiciary in his The Spirit of the Laws.
These ideas of then philosophers and political thinkers began to spread far and wide among people. People started discussions to bring the change in society as well as government based on those ideas. Such discussions began to take place in salons, coffee house, etc. Many books were published based on those new ideas. Some persons used to read those books and newspaper aloud among people at public places so that those who could not write or read could also become aware of them.
Spreading of ideas of freedom and news of further plans of Louis XVI to increase the rate of taxes and imposition of some other new taxes increased the anger among people. This resulted protest against the government, its system and privileged class in the form of revolt.
The Reign of Terror (From 1793 to 1794)
The period from 1793 to 1794 is known as the Reign of Terror. Maximilian Robespierre sentenced to death all those persons who he considered as enemies of the republic, whether they were ex-noble, clergy, and members of any political parties; including Jacobins. The execution were completed after trial by revolutionary tribunal. At that time Robespierre followed a policy of severe control and punishment.Guillotine, a device, named after inventor Dr. Guillotin, was used to behead a person at that time. It consists of two poles and a blade. Guilty persons were beheaded using guillotine.
Government led by Robespierre issued many laws among which ceiling maximum wages and price and rationing were main. Foods, such as meat and bread were rationed. Peasants were forced to sell their grains on fixed price in cities. Citizens were forced to eat equality bread, white flour which was costlier was forbidden. Use of Citoyen and Citoyenne for men and women citizen started instead of the traditional Sir (Monsieur) and Madam (Madame). Churches were shut down and their buildings were converted into offices and barracks. Practice of equality was sought everywhere.
Because of forcible implementation of laws, even supporters of Robespierre started the demand for change. Finally, Robespierre arrested and guillotined in July 1794. Reign of Terror ended with the end of Robespierre.
A Directory Rules France
After the fall of Jacobins a new constitution was introduced and power was again seized by wealthier middle class. According to new constitution- Non propertied section of the society had no right to vote.
- Two elected legislative councils would run the government.
- Two elected legislative councils would appoint an executive committee of five members, called Directory which would finally run the government.
- Directory could be dismissed by the majority vote of councils.
The clash between Directory and member of councils led to political instability, which opened the door of military dictator, Napoleon Bonaparte. Napoleon Bonaparte became the emperor of France in 1804.
DID WOMEN HAVE A REVOLUTION?
In spite of revolution, women did not get right to vote and their position in the society remained unchanged. To get their notable position in society, about 16 women clubs were started in different cities in France. The Society of Revolutionary and Republican Women was the most famous among them. Their main demands were to enjoy the same political rights as men. The constitution of 1791 made them disappointed as they were pushed to the category of passive citizen in that.Most of the women were deprived of education. Daughters of nobles or wealthier persons of third estate could study in convent. After that they were married by their families even against their will. Women who belonged to third estate had to work hard. They sold flowers, fruits, vegetables and employed as servant in house hold. After work they had to cook and look after for their families. During the Reign of Terror women’s clubs were closed and many women were put in jail.
In due course of time, revolutionary government came and introduced laws to improve the lives of women. For example - Many state schools were created, schooling was made compulsory for all girls, marriage against the will of girl was prohibited, divorce was made legal and could be applied for by both women and men, they could train for jobs, could run businesses, could become artists. But to get the voting rights women had to struggle for about next two hundred years in many countries including France. Finally, women got right to vote in the year of 1946 in France.
The Abolition of Slavery:-
In the system of slavery, people were forced to work, treated as properties and hence sold, bought and forced to work against their will. The trade of slave started in seventeenth century. French merchants bought slave mainly from Africa. The branded and shackled slave were then packed tightly into ships and after two to three month of voyages they were sold in the Caribbean to plantation owners. The extensive demand of sugar, coffee and indigo in European market was fulfilled by the exploitation of slaves as labours. Many port cities like Bordeaux and Nates got economic prosperity by the trade of slaves and many of the merchants were increasing their wealth by trade of slavery.However, the slavery began to be criticized in France. But even National Assembly could not pass any law to end of slavery in the fear of repercussion from businessmen who were mainly in slave trade.
By coming in power, Jacobins abolished the system of slavery in the French colonies, which was one of the greatest social reforms in their reign. But Napoleon again introduced the slavery system. And finally slavery was abolished in French colonies in 1848.
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